I. The Puzzle of Spinoza: The Manual Laborer Who Only Wrote Two Failed Books
During his lifetime (1632-1677), Baruch Spinoza published only two works. The first, the Principles of Cartesian Philosophy (1663), was an exposition of another philosopher's system, albeit with a critical appendix containing his own burgeoning ideas (the Metaphysical Thoughts). While useful for establishing his competence, it was ultimately a minor work. His second book, the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus (TTP), released anonymously in 1670, was just about universally panned. It was condemned by religious authorities of all stripes—Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish—and savaged by reviewers across Europe.
He held no university post, enjoyed no consistent patronage, and belonged to no powerful institution after his excommunication from the Amsterdam Sephardic community in 1656. He supported himself primarily through the manual trade of grinding and polishing optical lenses—a skilled craft, certainly, but far removed from the courts, salons, and academies where philosophical reputations were often forged. He deliberately refused several opportunities for financial security and public position, including a prestigious professorship (discussed in Section VI.C).
Nonetheless, Spinoza became, posthumously, one of the most influential and discussed philosophers of the early modern period.
How, then, did this humble independent scholar achieve such a lasting legacy?
On this web page, we document and explain all of the keys to Spinoza’s success. A more concise and readable version can be read in my book, The Independent Scholar (2025). This web page is a kind of appendix to the book chapter, allowing me to expand on various points and include more elaborate source material.
In the sections below, we explore the specific strategies, personal attributes, personal choices, social networks, and the philosophical realizations and commitments that explain the puzzle of Spinoza.
II. The Keys to Spinoza’s Success, in a Nutshell
A. Spinoza organized his life around the pursuit of truth.
Perhaps the single most crucial factor underlying Spinoza's success was his unwavering commitment to structuring his entire existence around the pursuit of philosophical truth. This was not merely an intellectual interest but the organizing principle of his life. As his early biographers emphasized, Spinoza lived his philosophy; his virtue and dedication were seen as testaments to the validity of his ideas (Bunge, 2017). Jelles, in the preface to the Opera posthuma, stressed Spinoza's early dedication to study and his "burning desire" for truth that led him to prioritize philosophy above all else. This intense focus is exemplified by anecdotes, possibly exaggerated but indicative of his reputation, such as him reportedly staying indoors for three consecutive months while absorbed in his work (Bunge, 2017).
This alignment of life and thought resonates with Pierre Hadot's conception of ancient philosophy as a "way of life," a practice aimed at transforming the self. Michel Foucault, inspired by Hadot, saw Spinoza as a pivotal, and perhaps even the final, major figure for whom philosophy was fundamentally this kind of existential project (Israel, 2023). Spinoza's writings, particularly the early Treatise on the Emendation of the Intellect (discussed further in Section VII.A), explicitly frame the philosophical quest as a search for a "true good" capable of providing lasting joy, distinct from the fleeting and often deceptive rewards of ordinary life. This conscious, life-defining commitment provided the bedrock upon which his independence and productivity were built.
B. Spinoza willfully sacrificed wealth and status for the *libertas philosophandi*.
Spinoza's commitment to philosophy was costly. Before his excommunication in 1656, he was involved in the family's importing business. As Steven Nadler recounts from Spinoza's autobiographical reflections in the Treatise on the Emendation of the Intellect, the philosopher consciously weighed the perceived goods of "riches, honor, and sensual pleasure" against the pursuit of a more enduring "supreme good."
After experience had taught me the hollowness and futility of everything that is ordinarily encountered in daily life, and I realized that all the things that were the source and object of my anxiety held nothing of good or evil in themselves save insofar as the mind was influenced by them, I resolved at length to enquire whether there existed a true good, one which was capable of communicating itself and could alone affect the mind to the exclusion of all else, whether, in fact, there was something whose discovery and acquisition would afford me a continuous and supreme joy to all eternity. ... The things which for the most part offer themselves in life, and which, to judge from their actions, men regard as the highest good, can be reduced to these three headings: riches, honor, and sensual pleasure. With these three the mind is so distracted that it is quite incapable of thinking of any other good. ... [He concluded it was time] "to embark on a new way of life." Despite the risk and uncertainty involved, he was convinced that doing so was in his own best interest. "I should be abandoning a good that was by its very nature uncertain . . . in favor of one that was uncertain not of its own nature (for I was seeking a permanent good) but only in respect to its attainment." In fact, he reasoned, "I should be abandoning certain evils for the sake of a certain good." Thus, he gave up a conventional life guided by mundane values and devoted to the pursuit of transitory goods for the life of philosophy and the pursuit of "the supreme good"—true happiness.
(Excerpted and summarized from Nadler, *Think Least of Death*)
While the family business was reportedly struggling with debt, making the decision perhaps less economically wrenching than it might otherwise have been, Spinoza's reflections indicate a conscious choice to prioritize philosophical inquiry over mercantile pursuits. This involved not only leaving the business but also facing alienation from his community and family after the *herem* (excommunication). He sought what he termed *libertas philosophandi*—the freedom to philosophize—and understood that this required insulation from the distractions and compromises associated with running a business and the maintainance of his family's social standing. His later refusals of patronage (see Section VI) further underscore his seriousness on this point.
C. Spinoza's decision to become a lens-grinder helped his writing career in six different ways
A point that has not been fully appreciated by biographers of Spinoza is that his choice of lens-grinding as an occupation was particularly strategic for his philosophical life in several ways. Firstly, it was a highly technical and intellectually demanding craft, which aligned well with his meticulous personality and mathematical inclinations (his famous "geometric" approach to philosophy can be seen as symbiotic with lens-grinding). It required patience, precision, and an understanding of optical principles, qualities reflected in his philosophical methodology. Furthermore, optics was a cutting-edge field of scientific inquiry in the 17th century. By mastering lens-grinding, Spinoza positioned himself not merely as an abstract speculator but as a participant in the Scientific Revolution. His expertise gave him practical credibility and facilitated connections with leading scientists. His skills were recognized and praised by famous working scientists, such as Christiaan Huygens, a leading figure in optics and physics, who spoke favorably about Spinoza's lenses. lens-grinding played a similar role in connecting him to Hudde and Leibniz (see Section III.C.1), which placed him in the center of the new Republic of Letters. He may have been following the example of Descartes, who he admired, and who also dabbled in practical optics. Since he had the traits required to become a genuinely world-class lens-grinder, he did not have to do marketing, which gave him more free time to write. Lens-grinding, therefore: gave him an independent income, exploited his strengths, exercised precisely the philosophical muscles he wanted to use for writing, gave him a path to credibility outside of institutions, introduced him socially to elite intellectuals, and even lowered the CAC (cost of acquisition) on his indie-scholar business model.
D. Paid teaching laid the social and psychological ground for his writing career
While lens-grinding was his mainstay, Spinoza also engaged in paid teaching, particularly at the beginning of his career. Teaching provided supplemental income but the real benefits were social and pyschological. After leaving the family business and community, he needed to support himself while learning lens-grinding. He worked for a time as an assistant teacher at the Latin school run by Franciscus van den Enden in Amsterdam (see Section III.A.2). This experience was formative: > "working at the school as an assistant teacher in the mid-1650s may well have been the aspect of his encounter with Van den Enden with the greatest impact on Spinoza's subsequent life..." > — Prof Jonathan I. Israel - Spinoza, Life and Legacy-Oxford University Press (2023) (1).pdf
Later, while residing near Leiden (see Section III.B.3), students from the university sought him out for private lessons in geometry and Cartesian philosophy. According to Bontekoe, this teaching context directly led to the creation of his first published work:
“it was in this connection that Spinoza wrote his Principia Philosophiae Cartesianae of 1663… so it was easy for Spinoza after a certain point to ‘formulate a part of [Descartes’] Physica in geometric order in textual form and publish it…’” — Prof Jonathan I. Israel - Spinoza, Life and Legacy-Oxford University Press (2023) (1).pdf citeturn0search8
Teaching served multiple purposes: it forced him to articulate complex ideas clearly, kept his mind sharp through engagement with students’ questions, generated concrete writing projects addressing specific needs (like the demand for a clear exposition of Descartes), and helped cultivate a circle of followers and disciples who would later play crucial roles in preserving and disseminating his work. Without this pedagogical dimension, his first publication, a crucial step in establishing his public intellectual presence, might never have materialized.
E. Asceticism: Discipline, frugality, modesty, sobriety, and temperance.
Spinoza's independence and philosophical productivity were grounded in a comprehensive ascetic ethos that combined radical frugality, disciplined routine, modesty, sobriety, and temperance. Early biographers such as Jelles and Colerus consistently emphasized his sober habits, modest lifestyle, and lack of interest in wealth or luxury. He is reported to have said, "Nature is content with little, and when she is satisfied, so am I." (cited in research notes). This was not asceticism for its own sake, but a deliberate strategy to maximize autonomy: by minimizing his material needs and desires, Spinoza reduced his dependence on external sources of income and patronage, thereby safeguarding his libertas philosophandi. His refusal of a substantial gift from Simon de Vries (see Section VI.B), on the grounds that it would distract him from his studies, exemplifies this principle. This disciplined containment of desires freed him from financial anxieties and the obligations that often accompany support, allowing him to dedicate the maximum amount of time and mental energy to philosophy.
Spinoza's frugality was matched by a highly regular, almost monastic daily routine. Accounts describe a life of remarkable order: hours spent lens-grinding, followed by extended periods of reading, contemplation, note-taking, and organizing his thoughts "into increasing order," as well as corresponding with his intellectual network. While he was sociable with the families he lodged with, he avoided excess, dissipation, and the distractions of public life. Crucially, he steered clear of the polemical disputes and personal quarrels that consumed many intellectuals of his era, often ignoring negative reviews and personal attacks. His philosophy itself provided a framework for transcending petty passions and the desire for vainglory. This disciplined, ascetic focus enabled him to produce a body of work marked by originality, coherence, and sustained depth, allowing his ideas to develop with minimal external interference and contributing to their radical force when they finally emerged.
F. The severe rigor of his "Geometric Method" forced a reckoning even if nobody wanted to.
A key element contributing to the undeniable impact of Spinoza's major philosophical work, the *Ethics*, was its revolutionary presentation: the *mos geometricus*, or geometric method. By structuring his arguments in the manner of Euclid's *Elements*—starting with definitions, axioms, and postulates, and proceeding through rigorously deduced propositions, proofs, corollaries, and scholia—Spinoza imbued his philosophy with an aura of mathematical certainty and logical inevitability. In an age deeply impressed by the power of mathematical reasoning, this method gave his radical conclusions about God, nature, mind, and ethics a compelling, almost irresistible force. Even those who vehemently disagreed with his premises found the logical structure difficult to dismantle. This quasi-mathematical presentation demanded engagement on its own terms and contributed significantly to the sense that Spinoza's work, however controversial, could not simply be dismissed. It forced a reckoning within European intellectual life, setting his work apart from more traditional discursive or aphoristic philosophical styles.
H. Jan Rieuwertsz's Bookshop: The tight circle of friends who made Spinoza's career.
Spinoza's success as an independent scholar was not achieved in a vacuum. It relied critically on specific forms of social and intellectual infrastructure, often informal and operating outside established institutions. Among the most vital was the Amsterdam bookshop run by Jan Rieuwertsz the Elder (1616-1687). Rieuwertsz was more than just a printer and seller; he was a key figure in radical intellectual circles, a publisher of dissident and Cartesian works (often in Dutch translation, making them more accessible), and his shop served as a crucial meeting place for freethinkers, Collegiants, Socinians, and others interested in challenging established orthodoxies (Israel, 2023). As discussed further in Section III.A.3, it was likely here that Spinoza had his formative encounters with Cartesian philosophy through Dutch translations by Jan Hendriksz Glazemaker. Rieuwertsz not only provided access to forbidden literature and fostered intellectual exchange but also took the considerable risk of publishing both of Spinoza's works, including the anonymously printed TTP and the posthumous *Opera*. Without this courageous publisher and the micro-community he fostered, Spinoza's ability to develop his ideas and disseminate his writings would have been severely hampered. Rieuwertsz's establishment exemplifies the necessity of supportive, albeit often clandestine, networks for the flourishing of independent and potentially subversive thought.
III. Spinoza’s Networks: Friendships and Letter-Writing as Indie-Scholar Infrastructure
While often portrayed as solitary recluse, Spinoza strategically cultivated and relied upon a series of overlapping networks and communities throughout his life. These connections provided intellectual stimulation, practical support, and the means to circulate his ideas. As Wiep van Bunge notes, friendships were vital within the Republic of Letters, especially for someone like Spinoza, cut off from his original community and family business:
"To put this into perspective, we should probably realize, first, how important friendships were in the context of the Republic of Letters, in which the status of its inhabitants was largely defined by the people they could call their friends; and second, that most early modern Europeans owed their livelihood to some sort of family business... It would seem that Spinoza, after he was banned from the Jewish community of Amsterdam in 1656, was in special need of a social as well as an economic network that could serve as an alternative to the family, which is why... the continual reaffirmation of the importance of friendship illustrates a real and vital element in his biography..."
— Bunge, *Spinoza's Life* (cited in research notes)
A. Amsterdam
1. Sephardic Schooling and Jewish Intellectual Culture
Spinoza's intellectual journey began within the Amsterdam Sephardic community. He attended the Ets Haim school (Talmud Torah), receiving a thorough grounding in Hebrew, the Bible, rabbinic law, and likely exposure to the Jewish philosophical tradition (see Section IV.A). His father served on the school's board, indicating family involvement. However, even during this period, likely in his adolescence and early adulthood, Spinoza began developing doubts and questioning traditional interpretations, particularly regarding the literal truth and divine origin of scripture. These emerging critical views eventually set him on a collision course with communal orthodoxy. He also participated in adult discussion groups within the community, settings where his heterodox ideas likely first surfaced and were debated (Israel, 2023).
2. Spinoza's First Mentor: Latin and Free Thought with Franciscus van den Enden
A pivotal step in Spinoza's intellectual development after his break with the synagogue (or perhaps beginning shortly before) was his engagement with Franciscus van den Enden (1602-1674). Van den Enden, a former Jesuit with radical political views and a reputation as a freethinker, ran a respected Latin school in Amsterdam. Spinoza almost certainly studied Latin under him around 1657-58, acquiring the linguistic tools necessary to engage directly with Descartes and the broader European philosophical discourse (Israel, 2023). Significantly, Spinoza also worked as an assistant teacher at Van den Enden's school (as noted in Section II.D). This experience not only provided income but exposed him to Van den Enden's innovative pedagogical methods and brought him into contact with younger students who would remain part of his network, such as Albert Burgh and Theodore Kerckring (Israel, 2023).
"After moving out of the Jewish district and away from his family home, in 1656... Spinoza doubtless depended for a time on the teaching job available to him at Van den Enden's school. Here, he certainly learnt novel methods of teaching and rhetoric as well as the classics... working at the school as an assistant teacher in the mid-1650s may well have been the aspect of his encounter with Van den Enden with the greatest impact on Spinoza's subsequent life..."
— Prof Jonathan I. Israel - Spinoza, Life and Legacy-Oxford University Press (2023) (1).pdf
3. The Rieuwertsz' Bookshop
As mentioned in Section II.H, the bookshop of Jan Rieuwertsz was a crucial hub. It was likely here, in the mid-1650s, that Spinoza immersed himself in Cartesian philosophy, facilitated by the Dutch translations produced by Jan Hendriksz Glazemaker (c. 1619–82). Glazemaker, working closely with Rieuwertsz, made Descartes' revolutionary works accessible beyond the Latin-reading academic elite (Israel, 2023). This circle provided Spinoza's initial "conversion" to Cartesianism, which served as the foundation upon which he would build his own system. The Rieuwertsz circle fostered discussion and debate around the implications of the new philosophy, creating an environment ripe for Spinoza's burgeoning philosophical inquiries.
"Most likely, Spinoza first embraced Cartesianism, optics, and geometry in Rieuwertsz's bookshop when encountering the growing array of translations of Descartes' works... published by Rieuwertsz and that enabled Rieuwertsz and Glazemaker to turn the shop into a unique showcase and repository of the revolutionary new philosophical system open to a wider public..."
— Prof Jonathan I. Israel - Spinoza, Life and Legacy-Oxford University Press (2023) (1).pdf
"Just when Spinoza was first finding his feet, in 1656–7... the indefatigable Jan Hendriksz Glazemaker (1620–82), collaborating closely with the elder Rieuwertsz, was zealously rendering the bulk of Descartes' sizeable oeuvre into Dutch. Glazemaker was indeed among the most remarkable of those playing a formative part in Spinoza's life."
— Prof Jonathan I. Israel - Spinoza, Life and Legacy-Oxford University Press (2023) (1).pdf
4. Spinoza's Flight to the Outside: From Excommunication to Roaming the Fringes with Collegiants and Mennonites.
The formal break came on July 27, 1656, with Spinoza's *herem* (excommunication) from the Amsterdam Portuguese Jewish community. The ban abruptly severed his formal ties with family and community members (Garrett, 2022). This event forced Spinoza to rely entirely on alternative networks for social and intellectual support. Even before the *herem*, he had likely begun associating with members of Amsterdam's religious fringe groups, particularly Collegiants and Mennonites, contacts which intensified afterwards (Israel, 2023). Many of these new associates, such as Jarig Jelles, Pieter Balling, and Simon Joosten de Vries, were merchants he may have known from his business dealings (Garrett, 2022). These freethinking Christians, often critical of established church hierarchies and dogma, provided a receptive audience for Spinoza's evolving ideas and formed the core of his earliest circle of friends and followers. Figures like Petrus Serrarius also served as important bridges between various dissident groups, including Collegiants, Quakers, and even Sephardic circles interested in heterodox ideas (Israel, 2023). Spinoza also continued engaging in debates with other Iberian freethinkers like Juan de Prado, indicating simultaneous involvement in multiple dissident intellectual currents (Israel, 2023).
"The five years after Spinoza's excommunication... are shrouded in haze... He associated with freethinking Christians and apostate Jews. Several of his Christian friends were Mennonite merchants whom he had met when he was still in business: Jarig Jelles, Pieter Balling, Simon Joosten de Vries. He also became acquainted with Jan Rieuwertsz, his future publisher, and the Mennonite circle around him. That included Jan Hendriksz Glazemaker... Another important contact was... Franciscus van den Enden..."
— Garrett, Cambridge Companion (cited in research notes)
"All Spinoza scholars agree the evidence points to Spinoza experiencing encounters with Amsterdam's religious fringe groups, especially Collegiants, from even before his separation from the Jewish community. These contacts surely intensified after July 1656..."
— Prof Jonathan I. Israel - Spinoza, Life and Legacy-Oxford University Press (2023) (1).pdf
B. Rijnsburg & Leiden (1661‑1663)
1. Move for solitude + university proximity; Collegiant hub.
In early 1661, Spinoza relocated from the bustling metropolis of Amsterdam to the quieter village of Rijnsburg, near Leiden. This move appears strategically motivated by a dual purpose. Firstly, it offered greater solitude for focused philosophical work, away from the demands and potential distractions of the city (Israel, 2023; Garrett, 2022). Secondly, Rijnsburg's proximity to the University of Leiden placed Spinoza near a major center of intellectual ferment, particularly regarding the ongoing debates surrounding Cartesianism (Israel, 2023). While he did not formally enroll, the location facilitated interaction with students and faculty. Rijnsburg itself was also a significant center for the Collegiant movement, a liberal Christian group with whom Spinoza had established connections in Amsterdam, further reinforcing his network of allies (Garrett, 2022).
"While historians have mostly stressed Rijnsburg's Collegiant associations... Bontekoe's comments add to the evidence that Spinoza's move... was driven as much by desire for proximity to the university and the stormy Cartesian controversies in progress there..."
— Prof Jonathan I. Israel - Spinoza, Life and Legacy-Oxford University Press (2023) (1).pdf
"Rijnsburg was at that time the center of the Collegiant movement... Several of Spinoza's friends in Amsterdam were Collegiants, and that may have been a factor in choosing a new place of residence... Another reason for Spinoza's choice must have been that Rijnsburg was at walking distance... from the University of Leiden."
— Don Garrett - The Cambridge Companion to Spinoza-Cambridge University Press (2022).pdf
2. Informal study‑group on Short Treatise / Ethics drafts—A Rare Circle of Discipleship in Rieuwertsz's Bookshop.
One of the most remarkable and underappreciated aspects of Spinoza's intellectual life is the intense discipleship that formed around his work during the Rijnsburg period. Even after Spinoza left Amsterdam for Rijnsburg, his closest friends and readers in the city did not simply lose touch or drift away. Instead, they continued to follow Spinoza's work, and continued to discuss it in Jan Rieuwertsz's bookshop. This was no ordinary reading circle: these men—Simon de Vries, Pieter Balling, Lodewijk Meyer, and others including Van den Enden, Jelles, and Rieuwertsz himself—devoted themselves to a painstaking, line-by-line study of Spinoza's early manuscripts, especially the Korte Verhandeling (Short Treatise on God, Man, and His Well-Being) and the Ethics (Israel, 2023).
What makes this point so extraordinary is not just the intellectual seriousness of the group, but the depth of their commitment to Spinoza's project. They did not merely read or discuss his work—they treated it as a living philosophical system to be mastered, defended, and, if necessary, clarified through direct correspondence with the author. The group functioned as a true school of discipleship, with each member taking turns to explain, prove, and debate the propositions, and then collectively writing to Spinoza for further guidance. The fact that all this took place completely outside of institutions, motivated by nothing but an authentic, shared passion for truth-seeking underscores the crucial role of organic private networks in the production of significant independent scholarship (see also Section II.H and III.A.3).
A letter from Simon de Vries vividly illustrates the seriousness and collaborative spirit of this circle:
"As for our group, it is arranged in this way: one of us (but each one takes his turn) reads through, explains according to his own conception, and then proves everything, following the sequence and order of your propositions. Then if it happens that one cannot satisfy the other, we have thought it worthwhile to make a note of it and to write to you, so that, if possible, it may be made clearer to us, and under your guidance we may be able to defend the truth against those who are superstitiously religious and Christian, and to stand against attacks of the whole world."
— Simon de Vries to Spinoza, Letter 8 (cited in Garrett, Cambridge Companion)
This was not just a group seeking to understand Spinoza's philosophy, but one preparing to defend it publicly and to live by its principles—a testament to the rare kind of discipleship Spinoza inspired. Their efforts provided crucial feedback, acted as the first audience for his developing system, and helped ensure the survival and eventual publication of his most important works.
"It was the Korte Verhandeling in its Dutch rather than Latin version, then that was intensively studied and discussed by the group. This too is significant. Spinoza's written legacy survives today largely in Latin, but his original emergence as a philosopher occurred in an extramural, non-academic context, an Amsterdam discussion forum chiefly attuned to the everyday vernacular."
— Prof Jonathan I. Israel - Spinoza, Life and Legacy-Oxford University Press (2023) (1).pdf
3. Leiden students visit for geometry and Cartesianism lessons.
Spinoza's presence near Leiden attracted attention from university students interested in the controversial new philosophy of Descartes and in geometry. As noted by Bontekoe (cited in Section II.D), students "often came to visit him in Rijnsburg" seeking instruction (Israel, 2023). This interaction served as another form of informal teaching for Spinoza, keeping him engaged with pedagogical challenges and directly leading to his composition of the *Principles of Cartesian Philosophy* as a teaching aid for one such student (later identified as Johannes Casearius). This connection to the university environment, even without formal affiliation, provided intellectual stimulus and contributed directly to his first publication.
"Equally, as a geometry teacher it was easy for Spinoza to take on "young disciples" who came to him from the university where at that time the true philosophy (i.e. Cartesianism) "still suffered under the cross," being attacked and persecuted. These students... "often came to visit him in Rijnsburg...""
— Prof Jonathan I. Israel - Spinoza, Life and Legacy-Oxford University Press (2023) (1).pdf
C. Voorburg & The Hague (1663‑1677)
Around 1663, Spinoza moved again, first to Voorburg, a village closer to The Hague, and eventually into The Hague itself around 1670, where he remained until his death. This period saw him solidify his position as a major, albeit controversial, figure in the European intellectual landscape.
1. Correspondence node in Republic of Letters—Oldenburg, Boyle, Leibniz. citeturn0search1turn0search7
From Voorburg and The Hague, Spinoza became an important node in the Republic of Letters, the continent-spanning network of scholars who exchanged ideas via correspondence. His most significant correspondence began during his Rijnsburg period but continued into this phase. Henry Oldenburg (c. 1618–1677), the influential first secretary of the Royal Society in London, initiated contact after visiting Spinoza in 1661. Their extensive correspondence covered metaphysics (Spinoza's criticisms of Descartes, his concept of substance), natural philosophy (critiques of Robert Boyle's experiments on air and nitre, relayed via Oldenburg), and theology. Oldenburg served as a crucial conduit, linking Spinoza to the English scientific scene and figures like Boyle, effectively creating an epistolary dialogue between Spinoza and the leading experimental philosopher (Nadler, *Spinoza: A Life*; Research Notes on Oldenburg). Although philosophical and theological differences eventually strained the relationship, especially after the publication of the TTP led Oldenburg to press Spinoza on controversial points regarding God, miracles, and Christ, the correspondence remained a vital channel for intellectual exchange (Research Notes on Oldenburg).
Another key correspondent and visitor was Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716). The polymath Leibniz engaged Spinoza in correspondence starting around 1671 and famously visited him in The Hague for several days in November 1676 citeturn0search7. During this visit, they discussed metaphysics, particularly Spinoza's *Ethics* (which Leibniz was allowed to read), optics, and other philosophical issues. Although Leibniz later distanced himself from Spinoza's more radical conclusions, the encounter testifies to Spinoza's established reputation and his role as a key interlocutor for the leading minds of Europe. Other important correspondents included Johannes Hudde, Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus, Willem van Blijenbergh, and Lambert van Velthuysen, among others, discussing mathematics, physics, ethics, and theology.
2. Nil Volentibus Arduum & vernacular philosophy projects.
During his time in The Hague, Spinoza associated with the intellectual society *Nil Volentibus Arduum* ("Nothing is Difficult for the Willing"). This group, which included figures like Lodewijk Meyer, aimed to promote rationalist philosophy and culture, often in the Dutch vernacular, making complex ideas accessible beyond academic circles. They engaged in projects related to theatre reform, language purification, and the application of philosophy to ethics and society (Israel, 2023). Spinoza's involvement, though perhaps informal, aligns with his interest (expressed in the *Emendation*) in forming societies to help others achieve understanding (see Section VII.C). The group's emphasis on reason and its critique of superstition and religious dogma resonated with Spinoza's own project in the TTP. His association with NIL demonstrates his engagement with collaborative efforts to disseminate enlightened ideas within Dutch society.
3. Small‑circle editing and clandestine printing of the *TTP* (1670) and posthumous *Opera*. citeturn0search10
The publication of Spinoza's major works relied heavily on his close circle of trusted friends. The *Tractatus Theologico-Politicus* was published anonymously in 1670 by Jan Rieuwertsz in Amsterdam, using false title pages and publication details (e.g., attributing it to a Hamburg printer) to obscure its origins and protect those involved (Nadler, *Book Forged in Hell*). This clandestine operation was necessary due to the work's explosive content. Similarly, after Spinoza's death in February 1677, his friends—chiefly Jarig Jelles, Lodewijk Meyer, Jan Rieuwertsz, and possibly Johannes Bouwmeester and Georg Hermann Schuller—moved quickly to secure his manuscripts. Working discreetly, they edited the unpublished works, including the *Ethics*, the *Political Treatise*, the *Emendation of the Intellect*, the *Hebrew Grammar*, and his letters, and arranged for their publication by Rieuwertsz later that same year as the *Opera Posthuma*. This required careful coordination, editorial judgment (Meyer likely wrote the preface to the *Ethics*), and considerable personal risk, given the condemnation Spinoza's ideas had already received. Without the loyalty, dedication, and organizational efforts of this small circle, Spinoza's most important philosophical contributions might have been lost or significantly delayed.
IV. Education without Degrees
Spinoza's path to becoming one of the seventeenth century's most profound philosophers was unconventional, marked by a blend of formal instruction, intensive self-teaching, and collaborative learning, entirely outside the framework of university degrees.
A. Formal Jewish primary curriculum; no advanced yeshiva record.
His formal education took place within the Amsterdam Sephardic community's Ets Haim school system, which he likely attended from around age seven. The curriculum provided a strong foundation in Hebrew, Bible studies (including detailed examination of the weekly Torah portion with commentaries like Rashi's), and rabbinic law. Instruction likely occurred in Spanish or Portuguese, his household languages, alongside Dutch. Basic literacy and numeracy were also taught. Advanced levels included Talmud study, though this seems to have left less of an impression on Spinoza, who later cited it primarily to point out contradictions (Israel, 2023; Research Notes on Education). Notably, records exist for students at the highest, pre-rabbinic levels (*yeshivah*) of the school, and Spinoza's name is absent. This suggests he left formal schooling around age fourteen or fifteen (c. 1646-47), possibly to join the family business, a common path for sons of merchant families (Nadler, *Spinoza: A Life*; Research Notes on Education). While thorough at the primary and intermediate levels, his formal Jewish education did not extend to the advanced training typical for scholars or rabbis.
B. Autodidactic mastery of Latin, optics, geometry, Cartesian physics.
The vast majority of Spinoza's knowledge in the fields central to his philosophical work—Latin, scholastic philosophy, Cartesianism, optics, mathematics, and physics—was acquired through rigorous self-study, supplemented by targeted instruction and informal discussion. After leaving (or preparing to leave) the Jewish community, he recognized the necessity of mastering Latin to engage with Renaissance and contemporary European thought. He achieved this through instruction from Franciscus van den Enden (see Section III.A.2), attaining sufficient fluency to read complex texts and compose his own philosophical works in the *lingua franca* of scholarship. His deep engagement with Descartes likely began with Dutch translations encountered in Rieuwertsz's circle (Section III.A.3) but extended to intensive study of the Latin originals and related commentaries and textbooks used in universities like Leiden (Garrett, 2022). His expertise in optics was gained not only through study but through the practical craft of lens-grinding (Section II.C). His mastery of geometry, evident in the method of the *Ethics* (Section II.G), and his understanding of contemporary physics and physiology were similarly products of dedicated independent study, likely involving attending lectures or demonstrations at institutions like the Amsterdam Athenaeum Illustre or Leiden University, though formal enrollment is unproven (Israel, 2023).
C. Continuous peer‑teaching as intellectual sharpening mechanism.
Throughout his life, Spinoza engaged in teaching and discussion that served as crucial mechanisms for refining his own understanding and articulating his ideas. His early work as an assistant teacher at Van den Enden's school (Section III.A.2) provided practical pedagogical experience. The informal study group in Amsterdam that dissected his early manuscripts (Section III.B.2) functioned as a peer-learning environment where he received critical feedback. His lessons for Leiden students in Rijnsburg (Section III.B.3) forced him to systematize and clarify his understanding of Cartesianism, leading directly to his first publication. His extensive correspondence (Section III.C.1) was a continuous process of explaining, defending, and refining his views in dialogue with other sharp minds. This constant engagement in explaining his ideas to others—whether students, friends, or correspondents—acted as a powerful catalyst for intellectual development, pushing him towards greater clarity, coherence, and rigor in his own thinking.
V. Lifestyle Virtues
Accounts from Spinoza's contemporaries, even his critics, consistently portray a man whose personal conduct reflected virtues of modesty, temperance, and caution, aligning closely with the rational self-mastery advocated in his philosophy.
A. Modesty: no boastfulness, courteous to critics, discreet conduct.
Spinoza appears to have exhibited a notable lack of arrogance or self-importance. While Jelles noted he "was hardly inclined to humility," this was framed by Spinoza's own definition of humility as a negative passion ("sadness... accompanied by the idea of our own weakness") rather than a virtue (Bunge, 2017). His modesty manifested differently: Bayle praised his "modest and contemplative lifestyle," suggesting an aversion to outward display or seeking acclaim (Bunge, 2017). His focus was on intellectual work, not self-aggrandizement. This is further supported by his reaction to criticism; observers like Bernard noted he "never fostered the slightest resentment against his critics," displaying a calm forbearance rather than defensive egotism (Israel, 2023). His conduct within Collegiant circles in the 1650s was described as "discreetly and respectfully" managed, allowing his expertise to be recognized without overt self-promotion (Israel, 2023). His sharp critique (in a letter to Jelles) of a book promoting the pursuit of wealth and honors as "the most harmful book" further underscores his rejection of worldly ambition in favor of intellectual and philosophical values (Israel, 2023). While deeply serious about his ideas, his interactions seemed characterized by courtesy and a focus on substance over status.
B. Temperance: sober habits, moderate pleasures guided by reason.
Spinoza's life was marked by sobriety and moderation. Early accounts affirmed he was "truly sober" and free from avarice (Israel, 2023, citing Toland). This personal habit aligned with his philosophical ideal of the "free person" who is "moderate in his enjoyment of goods of the body" and satisfies desires "under the guidance of reason rather than passion" (Nadler, *Think Least of Death*, quoting *Ethics*). His temperance was not, however, a dour asceticism. He explicitly argued in the *Ethics* that "it is the part of a wise man" to restore oneself with "moderate and pleasant food and drink," beauty, music, games, and theatre, enjoying such things "without causing harm to another" as long as they are pursued moderately (Nadler, *Think Least of Death*, quoting *Ethics*). He viewed excessive austerity, like mockery, negatively (Israel, 2023). His temperance, therefore, represented a rational balancing act: enjoying life's pleasures sufficiently to maintain physical and mental well-being, but without being ruled by passions or excess, thereby preserving the clarity and focus needed for the philosophical life.
C. Personal motto *Caute* ("be cautious")—signet ring emblem. citeturn0search9
Spinoza's personal motto, inscribed on his signet ring alongside the image of a rose, was the single word *Caute*—"Be cautious" or "Proceed with caution." This emblem encapsulates a key aspect of his approach to life and philosophy in a hostile world. It reflected a practical prudence necessary for survival given the controversial nature of his ideas. He published the TTP anonymously and took care in his correspondence. His decision to decline the Heidelberg professorship (Section VI.C) was partly driven by caution regarding the ambiguous guarantee of academic freedom and the potential for conflict. This caution was not rooted in fear or timidity, but in a rational assessment of risks and a desire to protect his ability to continue his philosophical work without unnecessary disruption or persecution. It represented a strategic awareness of the social and political realities within which he operated, a necessary complement to his bold intellectual independence.
VI. Money, Patronage, and Uncompromised Independence
Spinoza's commitment to intellectual autonomy (*libertas philosophandi*) is dramatically illustrated by his consistent refusal of financial support and positions that he perceived might compromise his independence or distract him from his primary goal: the pursuit of philosophical truth.
A. Declined synagogue pension (1000 fl.) and Louis XIV dedication scheme.
Two notable examples demonstrate Spinoza's early and later aversion to potentially compromising financial ties. Around the time of his excommunication (c. 1656), facing ostracism, the leaders of the Amsterdam synagogue reportedly offered him an annual pension of 1000 florins if he would maintain outward conformity, attend services, and remain nominally within the community. Spinoza unequivocally rejected this offer, stating he was not a hypocrite and sought only truth, declaring he wouldn't accept even ten times the amount under such conditions (Colerus biography, cited in research notes). Years later, during the French occupation of Utrecht (or shortly after, in The Hague, c. 1672-73), French officers acquainted with him suggested he could likely secure a pension from King Louis XIV if he dedicated a work to the powerful monarch. This was a common path to patronage at the time. Spinoza, however, showed no interest in this proposal, unwilling to seek favor from the ruler of a country then hostile to the Dutch Republic, and generally averse to such dependencies (Colerus biography, cited in research notes).
B. Simon de Vries episode—refused 2000 fl.; accepted pared‑down 300/250 fl. annuity. citeturn0search3
His relationship with his devoted friend and student, Simon de Vries, provides another clear instance of his principles regarding money. De Vries, a wealthy young man from Amsterdam, deeply admired Spinoza and belonged to the study circle (Section III.B.2). Wishing to support his teacher, De Vries offered Spinoza a lump sum gift of 2000 florins. Spinoza refused, arguing that such a sum would distract him from his studies (Colerus biography, cited in research notes). Later, as De Vries lay dying in 1667, he wanted to make Spinoza his heir. Spinoza persuaded him against this, arguing it was more appropriate to leave his estate to his family. However, De Vries insisted on providing for Spinoza's upkeep. His heir initially offered Spinoza an annuity of 500 florins. Spinoza deemed this excessive and successfully negotiated it down to a more modest sum, either 300 florins (according to Colerus) or 250 guilders (florins) as specified in a later-found codicil to De Vries's will (Nadler, *Spinoza: A Life*; research notes). He accepted this reduced annuity as it provided a basic level of security without creating undue obligation or altering his frugal lifestyle, allowing him to dedicate more time to philosophy.
C. Heidelberg chair offer (1673): academic freedom clause too vague; teaching would impede research—politely rejected. citeturn0search2
Perhaps the most telling incident was his refusal of a prestigious academic position. In February 1673, Karl Ludwig, the Elector Palatine, via Professor J. Ludwig Fabritius, offered Spinoza the Chair of Philosophy at the renowned University of Heidelberg. The offer came with praise for Spinoza's intellect and the promise of "the most ample liberty to philosophize." However, this guarantee was immediately qualified by the Elector's trust that Spinoza would "not abuse [this liberty] to disturb the publicly established religion" (Spinoza, Letter 47; Research Notes on Heidelberg).
In his polite letter of refusal (Letter 48, March 30, 1673), Spinoza articulated two main concerns. Firstly, the crucial condition regarding religious disturbance was too ambiguous. He wrote, "I do not know within what limits that freedom of philosophizing ought to be confined, that I may not appear to wish to disturb the publicly established religion." Given the intense controversy already surrounding his anonymously published TTP, which many had attributed to him, he foresaw inevitable conflicts and constraints in such a public role. He feared that his philosophical work would constantly be judged against religious orthodoxy, hindering his pursuit of truth. His personal motto *Caute* (Section V.C) informed this assessment.
Secondly, he stated that the demands of teaching would derail his own philosophical progress: "I do not think I could find any other occupation... that would be more incompatible [with] the improvement of my understanding... the love of which alone leads me... If I ever had to find time for the instruction of youth, I should have to give up my further progress in philosophy." He prioritized the completion of his own system, particularly the *Ethics*, over the status and security of an academic career. He added that he had "never been minded to give public lectures" and also expressed a preference for tranquility over the potential "odium" often encountered in positions of public dignity. While acknowledging the honor and the Elector's wisdom, Spinoza ultimately chose to preserve his hard-won independence and focus on his research, a decision consistent with his lifelong prioritization of the philosophical quest above all else.
VII. Philosophical Program as Way of Life
Spinoza's life choices, particularly his commitment to independence (Section II.A) and his specific strategies for achieving it (Section II), were not arbitrary but flowed directly from his evolving philosophical program. His philosophy was not merely a theoretical system but a practical guide to achieving the "supreme good"—a state of enduring happiness and understanding.
A. *Emendation of the Intellect*: quest for "supreme good."
This connection is explicit in his early, unfinished work, the *Treatise on the Emendation of the Intellect* (likely begun c. 1658). As highlighted in the autobiographical passage quoted by Nadler (Section II.B), Spinoza frames his turn to philosophy as a conscious decision to abandon the "hollow and futile" pursuit of conventional goods (riches, honor, pleasure) in search of a "true good" that could provide "continuous and supreme joy to all eternity." He identified this supreme good, initially, as "knowledge of the union the mind has with the whole of nature [*cognitionem unionis quam mens cum tota Natura habet*]" (Israel, 2023, quoting *Emendation*). This quest required not just intellectual effort but a reordering of life priorities, a practical "emendation" or improvement of one's way of living to facilitate the improvement of the intellect.
"After experience had taught me the hollowness and futility of everything that is ordinarily encountered in daily life... I resolved at length to enquire whether there existed a true good... whose discovery and acquisition would afford me a continuous and supreme joy to all eternity."
(Spinoza, *Treatise on the Emendation of the Intellect*, as cited in Nadler excerpt)
From the outset, Spinoza's intellectual project was conceived as a path to true human flourishing, a moral philosophy in the broadest sense, addressing the ancient question: what is the good life? (Nadler, *Think Least of Death*).
B. Development into *Ethics*—monism, *conatus*, intellectual love of God.
This initial quest evolved and found its mature expression in the *Ethics*. Here, the "supreme good" is more precisely defined in relation to Spinoza's core metaphysical and psychological principles. He establishes that "good" is that which is genuinely useful for preserving and enhancing our being, our power of acting (*conatus*). The highest form of this enhancement, constituting human perfection and blessedness (*beatitudo*), lies in the perfection of the intellect through adequate knowledge. The ultimate object of this knowledge is God, understood not as a transcendent personality but as the single, infinite substance encompassing all of reality (*Deus sive Natura* - God, or Nature). Achieving adequate knowledge of God/Nature, understanding the necessary causal order of the universe and our place within it, brings tranquility and eliminates disturbing passions.
This highest form of knowledge ("intuitive science") leads to the "intellectual love of God" (*amor Dei intellectualis*). This is not an emotional passion but the deep satisfaction and joy arising from understanding oneself and all things as necessary modes of the eternal substance, God/Nature. This intellectual love *is* the supreme good and blessedness; it is not a reward for virtue, but virtue itself—the very state of human perfection achieved through understanding (Research Notes on Supreme Good; *Ethics*, Parts IV and V). Spinoza's entire philosophical system, built upon monism (the doctrine of one substance) and the concept of *conatus* (the striving to persevere in being), culminates in this vision of intellectual salvation.
C. Supreme good implies building societies that enable many to reach intellectual beatitude.
Crucially, Spinoza recognized that the pursuit of the supreme good was not solely an individualistic endeavor. Already in the *Emendation*, he stated that achieving the highest human perfection involves understanding the need to "form a society of such a character that the greatest number may attain this state with the greatest ease and security" (Israel, 2023, quoting *Emendation*). He saw the value in enabling "as many as possible" to reach this intellectual union with Nature. This social dimension remained integral to his thought. The *Ethics* argues that what is truly useful for one person seeking understanding is also useful for others, and that cooperation based on reason is maximally beneficial. His *Theological-Political Treatise* argues for a democratic state precisely because it best secures the peace and freedom of thought (*libertas philosophandi*) necessary for individuals to pursue rational understanding and achieve blessedness. The ultimate aim, therefore, extends beyond individual salvation to fostering political and social conditions—characterized by freedom, reason, and mutual aid—that allow the greatest number of people the opportunity to perfect their intellect and attain the supreme good. His own life, dedicated to achieving this understanding and sharing it through his writings despite personal risk, embodies this connection between the individual philosophical quest and its broader social implications, closing the loop back to the puzzle of his influence (Section I).
"Writing his first text, On the Emendation of the Intellect... Spinoza believed he finally perceived what the 'highest good' is... An important part of 'achieving the highest human perfection' is grasping that one needs to form groups or societies 'enabling as many as possible to attain [such union] as easily and also as surely as possible,' that is introduce a new kind of adult education..."
— Prof Jonathan I. Israel - Spinoza, Life and Legacy-Oxford University Press (2023) (1).pdf
VIII. Timeline
- 1632: Born Baruch Spinoza in Amsterdam, November 24.
- c. 1639-1647: Attends the Ets Haim school of the Amsterdam Sephardic community.
- c. 1654: Father, Miguel de Espinoza, dies; Baruch and brother Gabriel take over the family business.
- 1656: Issued with the *herem* (excommunication) by the Talmud Torah congregation of Amsterdam (July 27); leaves family firm; likely begins associating more closely with Collegiant and freethinking circles.
- 1656-1658: Studies Latin, likely with Franciscus van den Enden; possibly works as an assistant teacher at Van den Enden's school; apprentices in lens-grinding; likely begins drafting early philosophical works (e.g., *Treatise on the Emendation of the Intellect*).
- 1661: Moves from Amsterdam to Rijnsburg, near Leiden. Begins correspondence with Henry Oldenburg after Oldenburg visits him (July). Amsterdam friends form study group on his drafts.
- 1663: Moves from Rijnsburg to Voorburg, near The Hague. Publishes *Principles of Cartesian Philosophy* with *Metaphysical Thoughts* appended (published by Jan Rieuwertsz).
- 1664-1665: Corresponds with Willem van Blijenbergh on good and evil.
- 1665: Correspondence with Oldenburg interrupted, partly due to the Second Anglo-Dutch War.
- 1670: Moves from Voorburg into The Hague. Anonymous publication of the *Tractatus Theologico-Politicus* (by Rieuwertsz, with false imprint), sparking widespread controversy.
- 1673: Receives and declines the offer of a professorship at the University of Heidelberg from Karl Ludwig, Elector Palatine (February-March).
- 1675: Resumes correspondence with Oldenburg. Corresponds with Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus about the *Ethics*.
- 1676: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz visits Spinoza in The Hague (November) and discusses philosophy, reading parts of the *Ethics* manuscript.
- 1677: Dies in The Hague, likely from a lung ailment exacerbated by glass dust from lens-grinding (February 21), aged 44. Friends arrange for the publication of the *Opera Posthuma* (including *Ethics*, *Political Treatise*, *Emendation of the Intellect*, *Hebrew Grammar*, Letters) by Jan Rieuwertsz later that year.